In 1644 Shunzhi, founding father of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)
entered Beijing and ascended the throne as the emperor. He became another emperor of an ethnic group to rule China.

The Qing Dynasty exercised more effective rule over Tibet than the previous Ming and the Yuan dynasties. This creates difficulties for Van Praag and Xagabba in tampering with this historical fact. They turn to the "Cho-yon (lama-patron) relationship" between the Dalai Lama and the emperor to bolster their theory of "Tibetan independence." Van Praag asserts that the relationship between Tibet and the Manchurian Qing emperor was the only one between the Dalai Lama and the emperor; such a relationship does not contain any subordinate content. Xagabba declares: "The world lacks good understanding of the true nature of the lama-patron relationship, such as that between the Sagya lama and Mongol Khan, and between the ensuing Dalai Lama and the Manchurian emperor."

Actually, like his Yuan and Ming predecessors, the emperor of the Qing Dynasty maintained patron-lama relations with the grand lamas in Tibet, with the latter subordinate to the former, a relationship which Van Praag and Xagabba decline to recognize.

During the Qing Dynasty, both the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Erdeni of the Gelug Sect ruled over Tibetan Buddhism. The Qing emperor encountered no problem with regard to the master-subject relationship with the Panchen Erdeni. The Panchen Erdeni of various generations and members of the Panchen Kampus Assembly raised no objection to this. The following is an analysis of the master-subject relationship between the emperor and the Dalai Lama.

(1) Emperors Shunzhi and Kangxi With the 5th Dalai Lama

Shunzhi was the first emperor after the Qing moved its capital to Beijing. The meeting between Emperor Shunzhi and the 5th Dalai Lama in Beijing is a well-known fact. The relationship established between the two should, therefore, be free from any disputes.

The 5th Dalai Lama Ngawang Lobsang Gyamco won support from Gushri Khan, chieftain of the Hoshod Mongols in Xinjiang and Qinghai, who believed in the Gelug Sect. Gushri Khan led his troops into Tibet from Qinghai. Following a series of battles, and after plotting with men of the 5th Dalai Lama, Kushri Khan overthrew in 1642 the Sde-srid Tsang-pa regime of the Garma Gagyu Sect in Xigaze, which had ruled U-Tsang for a score of years. The Gelug Sect, having gained a dominant position in Tibetan areas, established the Gandain Phodrang, power organ of the Gelug Sect, a move which shocked the whole of Tibet. Monks with the Garma Gagyu Sect joined hands with remnants of the Sde-srid Tsang-pa regime's forces to rebel in some places against the Gelug Sect and the Gandain Phodrang. Counter-measures taken by Gushri Khan and the Gandain Phodrang included: First, dispatching troops to suppress the rebellion; second, seeking closer ties with the Zhaibung and Sera monasteries in Lhasa, which had large numbers of monks; third, rebuilding the Potala Palace to deter the enemy; and fourth, seeking support from the Qing Dynasty court which had just won rule over the Central Plains. Emperor Shunzhi, who had just entered Beijing, was busy coping with various Mongolian tribes which had yet to submit to the Qing court. As a result, he found little time to exercise direct rule over border areas such as Tibet. Winning the 5th Dalai Lama and Gushri Khan over to the Qing court was obviously favorable for it to achieve eventual real control over the broad masses of Mongolian and Tibetan peoples who believed in the Gelug Sect. Out of his far-sighted strategic consideration, Qing Emperor Shunzhi invited the 5th Dalai Lama to Beijing. And the latter went to pay tribute.

Toward the end of 1652 or the ninth year of the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, the 5th Dalai Lama reached Beijing, where he was given a rousing welcome by Emperor Shunzhi and court officials. The 5th Dalai Lama stayed in Beijing for two months. The Qing court offered him all convenience, and built the Huangsi Monastery specially for him to live in. Emperor Shunzhi hosted a feast for him in the Hall of Grand Harmony in the Forbidden City. In the spring of 1653, when the 5th Dalai Lama left for Tibet, Emperor Shunzhi gave him handsome gifts, including 550 taels of gold, 12,000 taels of silver and 100 bolts of silk. The empress dowager gave him 100 taels of gold, 1,000 taels of silver and 1,000 bolts of silk. The emperor also granted him an honorific title, plus a golden certificate of appointment and a golden seal of authority. From then on, a system was established for the Dalai Lama of later generations to receive their official post from the imperial court.

The text of the golden certificate of appointment which Emperor Shunzhi gave to the 5th Dalai Lama read in part: "I was told one who has good luck strives to do things in favor of others while one who suffers from frustration pays more attention to self-cultivation. They do things in a different way. Whether one takes official post or enters monkhood takes the same road. You, the Dalai Lama, are broad-minded and boast boundless beneficence, striving to cultivate both samadhi and mati. Casting away sunya, you concentrate yourself on spreading Buddhist teachings among ignorant populace. So, Buddhism flourishes in the west and enjoys good fame in the east. Emperor Taizong was so glad to know all these that he sent a special envoy to invite you to the court. Reading the mind of the Heaven, you promised to come in 1652. When I came to power upon the will of the Heaven, you did come. Your performance here shows you have attained the realm of prajna. I appreciate your efforts to enlighten people, which should be taken as the steps leading to the top of the mountain and the boat that carries people across the sea. I hereby grant you the golden certificate of appointment and the golden seal of authority, making you the Dalai Lama, Overseer of the Buddhist Faith on Earth Under the Great Benevolent Self-Subsisting Buddha of Western Paradise."(The Records of Qing Dynasty Emperor Shizong, Vol.74, p.18) This is exactly an imperial edict issued by an emperor to his subject.

The text of the golden seal of authority which Emperor Shunzhi issued to the 5th Dalai Lama reads: "The Dalai Lama, Overseer of the Buddhist Faith on Earth Under the Great Benevolent Self-Subsisting Buddha of Western Paradise." (The Records of Qing Emperor Shizong, Vol.74, p.18)

One point has to be made clear here: Tibetan monks and manor lords cherished certificates of appointment, seals of authority and honorific titles given them by emperors or imperial courts of the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. They held these as authenticating objects of political power. Gaxag government officials had all their statutes and documents stamped with the seals issued by the imperial court to show their authority.

When the 5th Dalai Lama, who received support from Emperor Shunzhi in the way already described, returned to Tibet, the Gelug Sect and the Gandain Phodrang began to enjoy enlarged power and the 5th Dalai Lama's role became even more important.

In 1661, Emperor Shunzhi died and Emperor Kangxi ascended the throne. The new Chinese emperor continued to support the Gelug Sect headed by the Dalai and Panchen lamas. Each year, he sent people to visit the Dalai Lama. The relationship between the imperial court and the local government of Tibet remained as before.

Understanding the fact that his power could be enlarged and his prestige could be raised solely because of support from the Qing emperors, the 5th Dalai Lama left a very important will to Degsi Sangyai Gyamco, his closest assistant in government affairs, in 1682 just before his death. The will reads in part:

"Please tell various patrons including Hoshod Mongols that Sanggyai Gyamco and the Dalai Lama are no different. This will shall be implemented under the supervision of the Buddhist Guardian. According to the document stamped with auspicious prints of hands, which is kept on Potala Palace wall, the power to handle government and religious affairs is bestowed on Sanggyai Gyamco." "The Document" in this will refers to the honorific title which the Qing emperor bestowed on the Dalai Lama and which was written on the wall above the staircase of Deyangxag platform in the Potala Palace: "The emperor grants you the title of the Dalai Lama, Overseer of the Buddhist Faith on Earth Under the Great Benevolent Self-Subsisting Buddha of Western Paradise." (Qabai Cedain Puncog and Norcham Wugyain: Concise History of Tibet, Tibetan edition, middle volume, p.644)

The above facts show that the 5th Dalai Lama himself declared his title and power came from the emperor. This also shows the emperor-subject relationship between the emperor and the 5th Dalai Lama.

In his book, Van Praag mentions nothing of the fact that the emperor granted the 5th Dalai Lama a golden certificate of appointment and a golden seal of authority, nor the will of the 5th Dalai Lama, the title given by the emperor which was copied on the wall in Deyangxag of the Potala Palace, and other historical facts. However, he spared no effort to recount comparatively less important stories, such as the emperor going out of town to greet the Dalai Lama, and rising from his throne and moving 20 yards further to meet the Dalai Lama. After quoting WilliamWoodville Rockhill, an American, as saying that the 5th Dalai Lama was given all rituals due to the monarch of any independent state, Van Praag concludes that both the 5th Dalai Lama and Emperor Shunzhi actually regarded each other as monarch of his own land. Xagabba also says that the 5th Dalai Lama and Emperor Shunzhi met and conducted rituals due to leaders of independent states.

The above data show that the claims of WilliamWoodville Rockhill, Van Praag and Xagabba do not hold water as Emperor Shunzhi greeted the 5th Dalai Lama as an important eminent monk with great bearing on the Mongolian and Tibetan nationalities in the border region subject to rule by the emperor himself, not as the monarch of an independent state.

The 5th Dalai Lama recorded in his own biography how he was greeted by Emperor Shunzhi: "On the 16th, we left for the imperial palace to meet the emperor. We proceeded further after entering the city wall, and got off the horses at a place where we saw the approaching procession of the emperor. The emperor was more dignified and powerful than the Prince of Turning Wheel and more kind and intelligent than Amitabha. We went further for four shot arrow distance. Then, I dismounted and moved ahead on foot. The emperor rose to his feet from his imperial throne to greet me, grasping my hands in his and asking after me. Then, the emperor mounted his throne which is waist high, and asked me to be seated in a throne which is slightly lower than but close to his throne." (The 5th Dalai Lama in Beijing of Excerpts of Biography of the 5th Dalai Lama, translated and annotated by Chen Qinying and Ma Lin, and carried in China Tibetology, issue No.4 of 1992, p.49) This constitutes the most important part on greeting rituals. Everyone knows that when kings of two independent states meet, their seats should be parallel without any difference in height. In the Potala Palace fresco of Emperor Shunzhi Meeting the 5th Dalai Lama, the throne for the Qing emperor is higher so that the Dalai Lama looks up to the emperor from a lower place. This shows the two held difference in position. In his book, however, Xagabba only says that the 5th Dalai Lama was seated in a throne to the right of the emperor. He mentions nothing of the relative heights of these thrones. He does so purposely to mislead the public.

In addition to the 5th Dalai Lama, Gushri Khan also received an official position in Beijing in 1653. Emperor Shunzhi granted him a golden certificate of appointment and a golden seal of authority. The certificate text reads in part: "For the emperor's great task, the subject must be talked over so that its chieftain will size up the situation and pledge allegiance. The imperial court will show trust and appreciation. You, Gushri Khan of the Hoshod Mongols, respect virtue and are ready to do good things, hence enjoying high prestige in your own area. I, the sovereign, appreciate what you have done. To commend your loyalty and merits, I hereby grant you a certificate of appointment and a seal of authority." The seal text reads: "Righteous and Wise Gushri Khan." (The Records of Qing Emperor Shizu, Vol.74, p.19)

From the certificate and seal texts, one sees that the emperor was talking in a tone used in addressing a subject. This shows the Qing Dynasty treated Gushri Khan as a minority khan with enfeoffed land in China. Gushri Khan was the first to receive such an official title from the Qing emperor among the Mongolian tribes.

The 5th Dalai Lama had people absolutely faithful to him to serve as Degsi of the Gandain Phodrang regime, while Gushri Khan ruled the U-Tsang area with his military might. Both received official titles from the Qing imperial court. All these combined to lead to the situation in which, with approval and support from the Qing imperial court, Degsi held the highest power in the local government, and Mongolian and Tibetan monk and lay feudal officials exercised joint administration over Tibet.

Gushri Khan discussed with the 5th Dalai Lama and the Gandain Phodrang regime matters of great importance such as paying tribute to the Qing emperor as a token of allegiance and policies related to rule over Tibet, and often reached agreement as expected. Hence, Gushri Khan, like the 5th Dalai Lama, was a subject of the Qing emperor.